What do Second Language Learners Need to Know When Teaching Ojibwe?

What do Second Language Learners Need to Know… (744 kb PDF)

Brian D. McInnes

Abstract

While each tribal group has its own unique experience with Native language revitalization, there are similarities that emerge from a universal sense of urgency. One such common thread concerns the rapid loss of Elders. As these first language speakers disappear or retire from school–based Native language programs, their replacements are increasingly from a generation of highly motivated second language learners. The merits of this transition are not often up for debate; in many communities including those of the Ojibwe Anishinaabe, there are few if any alternatives. A number of skills have been found to be effective for Native language teachers in school–based settings. This paper attempts to identify some of those skills to better inform the practice of second language learners who wish to become teachers, as well as to provide communities with a sense of how to better support the next generation of language instructors.

Native Languages and School–Based Settings:
A Review of the Literature

Of the many challenges faced by Indigenous communities, the decline of Native language is certainly one of the most distressing. This is particularly significant when one considers that Indigenous peoples have no other place in the world to retrieve their languages should they disappear (Hinton, 2001). When a Native language is no longer spoken in a community or region, it often ceases to exist as a living language. Ensuring a future for these languages will require careful planning, determination, and consideration of existing and future resources.

The rapid disappearance of the tribal languages from daily life has not gone unnoticed in the Native community. Even in places where the language continues to be spoken with a degree of regularity, older generations of first language speakers are rapidly dwindling. As noted in Peacock and Day (1999),

many tribal communities are left with a handful of fluent speakers and the language is rarely heard except in a few tribal school language classrooms and tribal college classes and at some ceremonies and feasts. Indigenous languages are rarely the language of everyday social discourse, and English is the language of government and commerce in many tribal communities. (p. 1)

Communities have attempted to respond to this dilemma in a number of ways. The names of buildings, programs, and street signs are now often composed in the Native language. Language speaking tables and events are increasingly found as regular events on community calendars, and some regions have successfully developed Native language media sources. However, the most broadly encompassing response has perhaps been the inclusion of Native language content in a school–based setting.

From early childhood education through post–secondary degree programs, Native language programming is a pervasive feature of Indian education today. Hinton (1991) has identified three particular kinds of school–based language programs: language taught as an individual subject, bilingual school approaches, or immersion education. That these programs primarily target young people is key to a community’s long–term language goals. Indeed, delivering Native language instruction over a sustained period of time each day is an important role of community–based schools.

Whether it is an immersion program or a single class offered in the regular academic day, it is crucial that each be taught well; it may be the only exposure to a Native language many young people receive. In most communities, these programs represent the make–it–or–break point in their language revitalization hopes. As noted by Peacock and Day (1999), “[o]ur native languages are in the penultimate moment of their existence in this world. It is the last and only time that we will have the opportunity to save them” (p. 1). While some languages such as Hebrew have been brought back from extinction, or like Wampanoag, are in the process of being restored, (Ash, Fermino, & Hale, 2001), the full richness and cultural knowledge of a language exists with the fluent speakers who still know it. The axiom then would be to employ these speakers as language teachers.

The challenging part about running a school–based language program is the confinement that exists in a school–based program. Having to incorporate ancient and highly contextual Indigenous languages within the framework of a singular classroom is the first such challenge. If the program is a bilingual or immersion program, the task of actually teaching these academic benchmarks in that Native language is complex.

Oftentimes, such languages do not have the contemporary vocabulary developed to meet that need. Hinton (2001) notes that “a language that might never have been used to communicate such things before must develop vocabulary for math and science, as well as discourse styles that fit the situation” (p. 9). And while lexicon creation has many potential complications in and of itself, the concomitant undertaking of curriculum development is no easier. Many Native languages begin with few if any resources, and those teaching Native languages must create the materials themselves from scratch.

The challenges of lexicon creation and curriculum development help us to understand why the work of Native language teachers today is difficult, and perhaps why these teachers are so hard to come by. While victories have been made in policy development that allow “exceptions to teacher certification requirements for Native American language teachers” (Arnold, 2001, p. 45), little has been done to help empower these first language speaker teachers with the skills to run a formal classroom. Even in a community as linguistically strong as the Navaho, which has many speakers and types of education program, one of the greatest challenges remains, “a lack of trained and qualified staff to teach the Navajo language” (Benally & Viri, 2005, p. 91). Other Indigenous groups such as the Acoma Pueblo (Sims, 2001), Tutchone (Assemby of Alaska Native Educators, 2003), Hawaiians (Wilson & Kamana, 2001) and the Inuit and Naskapi (Johns & Mazurkewich, 2001) have reported similar findings. The situation in Ojibwe Anishinaabe communities is parallel to that of other tribal groups in this regard.

Core Skills of Native Language Teachers

There are many skills that a Native Language teacher today is required to possess. The most important of these may in fact be language fluency, or at least a high level of proficiency. Quite simply, “second language learners can only learn the language they are exposed to” (Lightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 169), thus it is that language teachers need to be able to provide high quality language themselves. In the age of “No Child Left Behind,” an intimate knowledge of academic standards and how to meet those standards has become a foremost need for all teachers. This is especially true for those working in immersion schools where formal academic content is taught through the Native language (Wilson & Kamana, 2001). Furthermore, while abilities to speak the target language and teach basic academic and classroom skills are important, so too is knowledge of how to teach a language. This is an often forgotten part of the equation, but yet absolutely essential for the success of any program (Johns & Mazurkewich, 2001).

Another skill in which Native language teachers need to develop proficiency is the teaching of culture. Indeed, the integration of culturally relevant materials, teaching strategies, and approaches is imperative to creating a sense of relevance and inclusion for Native students (Reyhner, Lee, & Gabbard, 1993). Teaching culture authentically means teaching students about the worldview and values that make an Indigenous people who they are, not merely teaching language in a way which attempts to approximate meanings and cultural norms of the mainstream society and language. More basic than the issue of identity preservation is that of linguistic competence. If learners only wish to become proficient speakers of a language on a communicative level, cultural knowledge is still essential:

Language learners need to be aware, for example, of the culturally appropriate ways to address people, express gratitude, make requests, and agree or disagree with someone. They should know that behaviors and intonation patterns that are appropriate in their own speech community may be perceived differently by members of the target language speech community. They have to understand that, in order for communication to be successful, language use must be associated with other culturally appropriate behavior. (Peterson & Coltrane, 2003, p.1)

Thus it is that the Native language teacher today is one who is both linguistically and culturally fluent, possesses skills in standards–based instruction and classroom management, and is intimately aware of how to help others learn a second language. It is no small wonder that communities have such struggles in finding teachers to meet their language program needs.

Even in communities where there are Elders who are willing to help with the language revitalization movement, it is not always realistic to employ them in lead teacher capacities. While they may have a defined interest in helping others learn about tribal languages and cultures, formal certification and licensure may not be a desired or practical goal. Silverthorne (1997) identifies a number of other factors as to why fluent speakers do not always want to work in a school–based setting, or at least as teachers:

Not all fluent speakers want to teach language. It is difficult for anyone to go into a classroom and face 20 to 30 bright energetic students and teach them a language that few of them have heard. One of the teachers of Kootenai language had the experience of a child telling him that he could not be in his class any longer, because his father said he did not want him to learn that language…A negative experience while teaching is common to all of us who teach. To a fluent speaker, it is one more negative in a lifetime of negative attitude against the language of the home. For many, this is unacceptable, and they leave teaching. (p. 105)

While some excellent training programs have been established to help first speakers of a language become licensed teachers (Heimbecker, Minner, & Prater, 2000), these are far and few between and often program or community specific. Furthermore, the advanced age of many first language speakers does not practically cast them as the primary teachers in a classroom. Who then is there to fill the increasingly vacant role of the Native language teacher in school–based programs?

In her work describing language preservation and human resource development, Joyce Silverthorne (1997) notes one important outcome of language revitalization initiatives to date as being that “the number of people who are developing a passion for learning Native American language is growing exponentially” (p. 105). While no programs at the present are able to take credit for creating fully–certified fluent speakers, they have produced many graduates who have a basic knowledge of their tribal language and culture, and who are interested in learning more. In some instances, this has involved younger people pursuing formal teacher training in order to perhaps one day work in a language teacher role. As observed by Hinton (2003), “as speakers age, increasingly, the energy and the burden for language revitalization is among the younger adult generations who are not fluent in their language” (p. 79). Hence, it is to this next generation of teachers that some attention will be focused, and the broader implications for their work as language teachers explored.

Second Language Learners as Teachers of Ojibwe

The ability of second language learners to fulfill the work of language teachers is a topic that has not been well documented or explored. It is an increasing reality in Native communities everywhere, and thus deserves some consideration in order to better assist these teachers in the important work they do for the Ojibwe Anishinaabe community.

In addition to a review of core literature, the summary ideas in this paper are the result of the author’s experience within the Ojibwe language teaching and learning community.

Ojibwemowin: The Ojibwe Language

The Ojibwe language continues to be spoken by several thousand people in the United States and Canada. More fortunate communities have well over 100 speakers while many are left with only a handful or fewer. Ojibwemowin has had a moderate tradition of scholarship, with the first examples of dictionaries and other language notes dating back some 200 years. Documentation activities are increasingly prevalent, and the language is taught on virtually every reservation and large town with a significant population of Native children. Furthermore, many Universities and community colleges offer Ojibwemowin as a part of undergraduate or even graduate coursework.

For the near quarter century that Ojibwemowin has been taught in the school system there has not been an overwhelming sense of success in terms of producing speakers who are fluent, proficient, or even conversationally competent. There are many variables that potentially account for this trend including a lack of curriculum materials, inadequate amounts of instructional time, and a general absence of defined language standards, to name a few. The lack of opportunities for language teachers to receive any kind of specific training may also be a contributing factor to this situation. Indeed, identifying and improving teacher skills may be one important way to improve program quality, and make the experience of Native language teaching and learning more rewarding and beneficial for teachers and students alike.

Ojibwemowin is a fascinating and beautiful language with a deep and complicated structure. From a speaker’s perspective it is as much a language as it is a gift. There is wide belief amongst cultural teachers that while the language has the ability to evolve, adapt, and change, it was originally given to the Ojibwe Anishinaabe people by the Creator as a means of sacred communication. Its utilitarian use notwithstanding, Ojibwemowin continues to be viewed as one of the most valued components of cultural identity by speakers and non–speakers alike. Regarded as the key to cultural traditions such as song, narrative, and ceremony, the importance of the language to the Ojibwe Anishinaabe people cannot be understated. It can thus be understood why the community places such a high value on how the language is taught, and indeed, who in fact may or may not be qualified to teach it. Ojibwemowin is a direct link to some 20,000 years of history, and the essence of the Ojibwe people’s identity:

If we – the teachers and students of Ojibwe – sit idly over the next three decades, the language will die. If that is allowed to happen, our children will no longer be Ojibwe. They will be the descendants of Ojibwe people – largely disconnected from the culture of our ancestors and its natural mode of expression – the Ojibwe language. (Treuer, 1996, p. 3)

Thus it can be understood why there is such a strong imperative to save the language. Not only are age–old ceremonial and cultural practices threatened by the loss of language, so too, is the existence of the Nation.

The Ojibwe language is understood by Elders to be a spiritual language, and thus has a number of distinct protocols that must be observed. The subtleties of such a complex communicative system are many, and aspects related to the transmission of language are highly scrutinized. Certain types of stories may be told only during specific times of the day or year, certain words should only be used in particular ceremonies, and care should be taken to never offend other human or spiritual beings through careless speech. Because of the multi–leveled social rules of language use, tribal Elders are revered as the ultimate authorities of Ojibwemowin because they are intimately familiar with the complex intersections of language and culture. While this paper is focused on the needs of second language learners, there is also relevance for Elders or other first language speakers who are entering the profession as language teachers. In some regards, this study creates a basic conceptual framework of the skills and knowledge that teachers of Ojibwemowin may seek to incorporate within their preparation and practice.

A review of the foundational literature suggested a number of basic skills and
preparations for Native language teachers working in school–based programs. All of these skills, ranging from cultural and linguistic fluency, basic grounding in core classroom–teacher training methods, and knowledge of second language learning processes and instructional strategies, were affirmed as being important by Elders and the Native language community. However, there are a number of other considerations that further inform the skills and training of Native language teachers today. This becomes a summary then of what a second language learner – albeit a first language learner – needs to know when teaching Ojibwe.

Key Values

One of the principle Ojibwe values of life is kindness (gizhewaadiziwin). In Ojibwemowin, this concept permeates both spoken work and physical action. It is a statement of purpose and practice, and one which teachers should diligently try to learn and then convey to students when teaching the language. While not necessarily a defined learning outline or teacher skill in training programs, it is an important modus operandi from an Indigenous sensibility. Indeed, by not teaching the concept of gizhewaadiziwin as a part of language instruction, students may subsequently be denied an important lesson about the socio–cultural world that frames Ojibwe language use.

Another key value for Native Language teachers to learn, understand, and teach, is that of respect (manaaji’idiwin). A sense of respect between people is imperative to securing healthy relationships amongst teachers, students, and the community in a school–based program. However, there is a broader implication of this concept which applies directly to the language itself. Beyond building relationships between people in Native language preservation, it is also important for learners and teachers to develop respect for Ojibwemowin. As a living language which embodies the spirit of the people, any work in this medium should only be done with the utmost care. This is particularly the case when considering the transmission of language from one generation to the next.

A third key value which may be useful to Native language teachers is that of ayaangwaamiziwin: a concept which builds upon the values of kindness and respect by incorporating intentional thought and action. Kindness and respect remain important as the foundation of relationship between peoples, however, ayaamgwaamiziwin is the lived expression of this foundation. We are careful because we remember to be kind and respectful in all of our protocols, and we are determined to do our work well because of our understanding of language and its importance to the survival of the people.

Value–Based Action

In his seminal work, The Mishomis Book (1988), Edward Benton–Banai named these and a number of additional values which were given to the Anishinaabe people to live by. These included wisdom, love, peace, bravery, honesty, humility, and truth. Certainly each of these other values have their place in Native language teaching and learning, but this paper explores the expression of kindness, respect, and ayaangwaamiziwin as a core set of values in preparing second language learners as teachers of Ojibwe.

Value based–action as an imperative for Ojibwe language teaching and learning, defined more precisely in the Ojibwe language as a Ojibwemowi–gwayako–gikinoo’amaadiwin, is comprised of a number of key definitional elements. These include excellence in language use/ fluency, collaboration, dedication to continued learning, language adaptation, diligence to the integrity of cultural tradition, and an active practice of strengths and principles. The interconnection between all components notwithstanding, each component has its own definitional aspects and application. In an attempt to frame the more comprehensive idea of value–based action as an operational means of improving teacher quality in Native language work, each of these components will be further described.

The subject of fluency or alternatively, excellence in spoken language use, is an a priori part of value–based Ojibwemowi–gwayako–gikinoo’amaadiwin. Modeling grammatically proper, culturally rich, and age–specific language is the ideal for all language teachers. If teachers are not fluent, achieving a high level of language proficiency should be a top priority. Hinton (2003) suggests that learners spend a period of months or even years mentoring before they become teachers of the language. While it may be the case that adult second language learners may never speak a Native language with the same pronunciation, grammatical, and sociolinguistic skills of first–language speakers, there is still much these teachers have to offer classrooms (Lightbown & Spada, 1999).

To this end, Hinton (2003) suggests a number of ways that language learners can fulfill vital functions in a language classroom. The notion that there can be multiple roles in a classroom is one way to solve the problem of Elders who do not want to be teachers, and teachers who want to be speakers. This combination of a “language mentor” and “teacher learner” may be one ideal solution to the increasingly hard–to–fill Native–language classrooms of today. While Hinton (2003) also suggests a number of techniques that second language learners can use to fulfill key instructional functions in the classroom, these are by no means an instructional and/or personal endpoint. With regards to using language for a carefully planned session, “it is not enough to put these phrases down in a list – you must actually know them, and be able to use them spontaneously when the situation arises” (Hinton, 2003, p. 89). Thus it is that teaching from any level of language proficiency, even the most basic one, requires the development of a sense of linguistic accountability as part of one’s practice.

Working with Elders in the classroom is one potential venue of realizing the skill of collaboration. Elders continue to be our greatest repository of linguistic and cultural information; therefore, it remains imperative to work with them as we continue to find ways to use the Ojibwe language in the classroom and the surrounding world of today. In instances where teachers are not fortunate enough to have Elders in the classroom, there is nothing to stop individuals from approaching and working with Elders on their own. It stands to reason that learning to visit and practice speaking with fluent speakers is the only way to successfully gain knowledge of any language, including Ojibwemowin. Hence, collaboration in language learning and teaching is not something which is necessarily relegated or restricted to the classroom; individuals are capable of forming successful language learning partnerships in myriad ways in virtually any setting (Hinton, Vera, & Steele, 2003). Moreover, it is one’s willingness and consistency in maintaining these collaborations of learning and teaching that ultimately determines success.

For both second language learners and first speakers of Ojibwe, an important quality of a Native language teacher is a willingness to refine one’s skills. This refers not only to knowledge of curriculum and pedagogy, but also one’s overall speaking proficiency. This is an ongoing responsibility of second language learners, who clearly require such development. However, even for first language speakers, working as a language teacher may require a higher level of language use than they have experienced in many years. This is particularly true in immersion school settings where every subject is taught in Ojibwemowin throughout the entire day. Elders report that the language is a virtually limitless source of knowledge and linguistic possibility. Hence, for all language teachers, there is room to develop one’s skills as a part of both personal and professional developmental growth.

An important additional skill related to language development is a willingness to modernize and assist with the adaptation of Ojibwemowin to new situations of use. This includes researching, documenting, and teaching new words, expressions, and phrases which describe the modern reality of schools today. An ideal way of achieving this is to build master–speaker relationships between an Elder and a teacher–learner (Hinton, Vera, & Steele, 2003). Translation is often best done using a team approach, particularly when one partner brings a strong knowledge of the contemporary use and purpose of items or words, and the other brings the ability to describe these in Ojibwemowin. Modernization of the language takes commitment and creativity to achieve. It is often far too easy to revert to English–based instruction or dialogue when there are no immediate translations available in Ojibwemowin. This is a challenge which can and must be overcome in redefining the language as a continuing and useful means of communication.

The modernization of Ojibwe in school–based settings is a process which must be concomitantly done with a refocused attention on traditional uses and structures of Ojibwemowin. Much of this refers to the values which are contained in the language, and the social settings under which those values may be transmitted. As new terms are invented, and new contexts and situations for language use defined, these should not take precedence over traditional speech patterns or social contexts of communication. For instance, the language which is taught in classrooms should reflect traditional beliefs and communication styles as opposed to merely translating English norms. Simply because Ojibwe has an equivalent to the English word “hello” (boozhoo) does not mean these outwardly cognate words are used in the same way. Moreover, how the Ojibwe Anishinaabe people talk about concepts and expressions relating to love, life, sickness, and death, to note a few examples, is very different from the way English speakers do, even though parallel sets of terms exist in each language.

Instead of translation, the modernization of language should represent a grand extension of traditional ideologies and communication structures. This will be increasingly important as a generation of second language learner teachers works to create future generations of first language speakers. It is imperative that future first language speakers share the same key values and cultural understandings as did preceding generations of first speakers. If this objective is not achieved, the consequence is not only a changed language, but a changed sense of Ojibwe Anishinaabe identity.

Second language learners who desire to become teachers are a unique group of individuals to be commended and supported for their aspiration and effort

Ojibwe is a difficult language to learn based not only on the degree of grammatical complexity, but also the different cultural and social connotations of use. The benefit of having intentionally learned the language, and with it the accompanying socio–cultural contexts, gives the second language learner a unique perspective: it proves it can be done. Instilling this confidence in today’s language learners is vital. This is a perspective that past generations of First speakers have not brought to the classroom, and perhaps has been a missing variable all along. Second language learners are encouraged by Elders to be guided by respect, and to be careful and paced in their learning and teaching work. However, at the same time they are encouraged to be inspired and determined in what they are doing. In this way, the strengths and principles of value–based action may be better realized within the Native language classrooms of today and tomorrow.

As the Ojibwe language movement gains momentum in the opening of immersion and culture–based schools, the development of cultural and linguistic standards, and the broad community realization that language is the key to identity, the development of language teacher skills becomes increasingly important. Training models for language teachers need to incorporate traditional classroom skills with cultural and linguistic competency at the forefront. Whether initiated by an institution or individual, it is vital that Ojibwemowin learning and teaching is done in a future oriented way that remains firmly rooted in traditional cultural foundations. The Ojibwe language will and should continue to evolve as a productive language which is useful in all facets of modern life. It is the teachers of today and tomorrow who will ensure that the Spirit of the language is remembered and extended in this effort to modernize, revitalize, and continue the language for future generations of speakers.

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How to Cite this Article

APA

McInnes, B.D. (2008, Spring). What do Second Language Learners Need to Know When Teaching Ojibwe? Bemaadizing. Retrieved [add date of access], from http://www.bemaadizing.org/2008/03/29/what-do-second-language-learners-need-to-know-when-teaching-ojibwe/

MLA

McInnes, B.D. “What do Second Language Learners Need to Know When Teaching Ojibwe?” Bemaadizing. Spring 2008. [add date of access], <http://www.bemaadizing.org/2008/03/29/what-do-second-language-learners-need-to-know-when-teaching-ojibwe/>.